KHARAI CAMEL

●Name origin: From Gujarati “Khara” (saline) — denotes its adaptation to saline desert–coastal ecosystems.

●Unique feature: Only camel breed in the world that can swim up to 3 km in seawater to reach mangrove islands.

●Habitat: Brackish tidal creeks and mangrove forests of Kachchh, Gujarat.

●Cultural link: Protected and reared by Rabari and Fakirani Jat Maldharis for over 400 years, forming a core part of pastoral heritage.

●Diet:

Feeds on Avicennia and Rhizophora mangroves, which provide natural salt balance and high mineral nutrition.

●Milk Value:

-Rich in iron, vitamin C, and antibodies similar to human milk.

-Easily digestible, boosts immunity, and used in therapeutic and traditional remedies.

●Threats: 

Illegal salt pan expansion, industrial encroachment, and mangrove loss in CRZ-I zones have destroyed grazing areas, causing a sharp population decline of Kharai camels.

●CONSERVATION STATUS - 

IUCN - EN

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भारत का ‘प्रोजेक्ट विष्णु’ — हाइपरसोनिक मिसाइल तकनीक में बड़ी छलांग ।।

भारत हाइपरसोनिक क्रूज़ मिसाइल विकसित करने में तेजी से प्रगति कर रहा है, जो स्क्रैमजेट इंजन तकनीक (Scramjet Engine Technology) पर आधारित है।

✅ इस मिसाइल का नाम “प्रोजेक्ट विष्णु (Project Vishnu)” रखा गया है,

✅ जो लगभग 8 Mach (करीब 10,000 किमी/घंटा) की रफ्तार से उड़ने में सक्षम होगी।

📌 मुख्य जानकारी:

➡️ कैबिनेट कमिटी ऑन सिक्योरिटी (प्रधानमंत्री नरेंद्र मोदी की अध्यक्षता में) के सामने यह परियोजना विचाराधीन है।

➡️ DRDO (Defence Research and Development Organisation) को सबसे बड़ी चुनौती अत्यधिक गर्मी से मिसाइल की संरचना को बचाने की है।

➡️ इसके लिए थर्मल प्रोटेक्शन स्कीम बनाई जा रही है, जिसके तहत टाइटेनियम बॉडी को सिलिका टाइल्स से ढका जाएगा ताकि यह पिघले नहीं।

➡️ विंड-टनल परीक्षण (Wind Tunnel Tests) किए जा रहे हैं ताकि ड्रैग (Drag) यानी रफ्तार को कम करने वाले तत्वों का विश्लेषण किया जा सके।

📌 गति और तकनीक (Speed & Technology)

➡️ प्रारंभिक संस्करण की गति 8 Mach होगी,

➡️ जबकि भविष्य के संस्करण Mach 10 तक पहुँच सकते हैं।

➡️ दुनिया में बहुत कम देश इस तकनीक पर काम कर रहे हैं —

 🔹 रूस की मिसाइल अंतिम चरण में ग्लाइड करती है,

 🔹 चीन भी इसी तरह की तकनीक पर कार्यरत है,

 🔹 अमेरिका ने पहले काम शुरू किया था, लेकिन तकनीकी कठिनाइयों के कारण प्रोजेक्ट रोक दिया था।

📌 क्या है प्रोजेक्ट विष्णु?

✅ परियोजना का सारांश: यह DRDO की एक टॉप-सीक्रेट (Top Secret) परियोजना है, जिसका उद्देश्य भारत की हाइपरसोनिक मिसाइल क्षमता विकसित करना है।

✅ रणनीतिक उद्देश्य: भारत की सामरिक प्रतिरोधक क्षमता (Strategic Deterrence) को बढ़ाना, ताकि पारंपरिक और परमाणु दोनों प्रकार के हमलों में उपयोग किया जा सके।

✅ फोकस: चीन और पाकिस्तान से उत्पन्न खतरों का मुकाबला करने के लिए यह मिसाइल विशेष रूप से तैयार की जा रही है।

✅ प्लेटफ़ॉर्म लचीलापन: यह मिसाइल भूमि, वायु और नौसेना (Land, Air & Naval Systems) — तीनों प्लेटफ़ॉर्म से दागी जा सकेगी।

✅ संयुक्त तकनीकें: इसमें Scramjet Propulsion, Materials Science और Precision Guidance System जैसी उन्नत तकनीकें जोड़ी जा रही हैं।

✅ सिद्धांतिक सामंजस्य: यह परियोजना भारत के ‘Credible Minimum Deterrence’ सिद्धांत और तकनीक-आधारित युद्ध नीति को सशक्त बनाती है।

📌 निष्कर्ष:

🔹 प्रोजेक्ट विष्णु भारत की रक्षा तकनीक में एक ऐतिहासिक कदम है,

🔹 जो न केवल आत्मनिर्भरता (Self-Reliance) को बढ़ाएगा, बल्कि भारत को हाइपरसोनिक हथियार विकसित करने वाले चुनिंदा देशों की श्रेणी में भी शामिल करेगा।

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Directive Principles Of State policy DPSP

♟️The constitution of India aims to establish not only political democracy but also socioeconomic justice to the people to establish a welfare state. 

♟️These provisions are given in Part IV of Indian Constitution. 

♟️Directive Principles of state policy are in the form of instructions to the governments at the centre as well as states. 

♟️Though these principles are non justiciable, they are fundamental in the governance of the country. 

♟️The idea of the Directive Principles of State Policy has been taken from the 

Irish Republic .

♟️The Directive Principles of State policy were incorporated in our constitution in order to provide economic justice and to avoid concentration of wealth in the hands of few people. 

♟️The constitution covers from Article 36 to 51 as Directive Principles of State 

Policy. 

♟️They are unique blend of socialistic, liberal, democratic and Gandhian Principles. 

♟️They describe as the ‘conscience of the constitution’. 

♟️In the “State of Tamil Nadu etc. Vs L.Abu Kavur Bai” case in 1984 , the Supreme court held that although directive principles of State Policy are not enforceable, yet the court should not avoid them.

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Solid-State Batteries

●Concept

-Use solid electrodes and solid electrolytes (ceramics, polymers, or glass) instead of liquid ones—eliminating separators and improving safety, energy density, and durability.

●Working

Operate like Li-ion batteries —lithium ions move between cathode and anode through a solid electrolyte, ensuring stable performance and preventing leakage or fire.

●Advantages

-Higher Energy Density - Compact, long-range EV batteries

-Safer - No risk of explosion or leakage

-Longer Lifespan

-Space Efficient - No safety hardware needed

●Challenges

-High Cost & complex manufacturing

-High internal resistance, poor cold-weather output

-Unproven scalability at commercial EV levels

●Applications

-Ideal for EVs, pacemakers, wearables, RFIDs— where high capacity and compactness matter.

●India - next-gen battery revolution, powering India’s EV future under PM E-Drive and FAME-II with safer, faster-charging, high-capacity solutions.

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AMRUT 2.0

●Focus

Concentrates exclusively on water supply & sewerage management.

●Aims - provide functional tap water connections to all households in statutory towns.

-Universal sewerage management in 500 AMRUT cities. 

●Nodal Ministries:

Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs (MoHUA)

Ministry of Jal Shakti

●Type: Centrally Sponsored Schemes

●Objectives

-Universal Water Supply -all statutory towns.

-100% Sewerage Management - in 500 AMRUT cities.

-Water Secure Cities - Rejuvenation of water bodies and urban aquifer management, rainwater harvesting & reuse of treated wastewater.

●Major Components

Pey Jal Survekshan

Behaviour Change Communication (BCC)

Technology Sub-Mission - start-ups & private entrepreneurs.

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Significance Of Fundamental Duties

♟️They serve as a reminder to the citizens that while enjoying their rights, they should also be conscious of duties they owe to their country, their society and to their fellow citizens.

♟️They serve as a warning against the anti-national and anti-social activities like burning the national flag, destroying public property and so on.

♟️They serve as a source of inspiration for the citizens and promote a sense of discipline and commitment among them. 

♟️They help the courts in examining and determining the constitutional validity of a law.               

♟️They are enforceable by law. Hence, the Parliament can provide for the imposition of appropriate penalty or punishment for failure to fulfil any of them.

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Tropical Rain Destabilises Oceans Only When Light

Key Findings

♟️Scientists earlier believed rain makes the ocean’s surface more buoyant (due to freshwater being lighter)

♟️New study (Univ. of Washington, July 2025) finds light rain destabilises the ocean, but heavy rain stabilises it

 Mechanism

♟️Rain in tropics often comes with cold pools (cold, dry air + clouds)

♟️These cool the surface, block sunlight & transfer heat to air

♟️Thus, heavier rain makes surface cooler and more stable

♟️Light rain (0.2–4 mm/hr) increases mixing, while heavy rain = negative buoyancy flux (surface stays more stable)

 Additional Observations

♟️Rainfall at night destabilises oceans more than during the day

♟️Researchers identified:

 ⚜️Cold Rain Zone (W. Pacific & Indian Ocean): High heat loss

 ⚜️Hot Rain Zone (Central Pacific): Less heat loss

Impact on Climate

♟️Ocean mixing affects carbon, heat, nutrient transport

♟️Rainfall dynamics influence weather and climate models

♟️Study highlights risk of prediction errors due to simplistic assumptions.

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PM E-DRIVE (Electric Drive Revolution in Innovative Vehicle Enhancement) scheme

•Ministry - Ministry of Heavy Industries

•Nodal agency - BHEL

•Aims- Accelerate the adoption of electric vehicles, establish charging infrastructure, & build a robust EV manufacturing ecosystem

•Objectives:

-Promote mass mobility through public transport.

-Provide upfront incentives for EV purchases.

-Encourage development of charging infrastructure and EV manufacturing.

-Support Aatmanirbhar Bharat 

•Eligibility Criteria:

-Advanced Batteries: Only advanced battery EVs qualify.

-Govt. Purchases: Excludes government EVs.

-Registration: Must be under CMVR, 1989.

•Key Components:

-Subsidies & Incentives 

-Grants for Creation of Capital Assets Eligibility Criteria for EV Incentives:

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Energy Security in India

♟️India is accelerating its transition to renewable energy for energy security and sustainability. As of January 2025, non-fossil fuel capacity has reached 217.62 GW, with major contributions from solar (97.86 GW) and wind (48.16 GW) power.

Key Initiatives

♟️National Green Hydrogen Mission (2023): Aims to position India as a global hydrogen leader with ₹8 lakh crore investment and a target of 5 million metric tons of green hydrogen production by 2030.

♟️CCDC Wind Initiative (2020): Strengthened wind energy mapping and data collection, contributing to 10 GW of new capacity.

♟️National Solar Mission: Propelled India's solar capacity from 9.01 GW in 2016 to 97.86 GW in 2025. Solar parks, rooftop programs, and off-grid solutions have expanded significantly.

♟️PM-KUSUM Scheme (2019): 6.1 lakh solar pumps installed to support farmers and reduce reliance on fossil fuels.

♟️PM Surya Ghar Muft Bijli Yojana (2024): Aims to power 1 crore households with rooftop solar by 2027, already achieving 7 lakh installations in 10 months.

 Impact & Future Roadmap

♟️Strengthening grid stability and reducing carbon emissions.

♟️Expanding offshore wind projects with ₹7,453 crore Viability Gap Funding.

♟️Creating 6 lakh green jobs by 2030 in hydrogen and renewables.

♟️India is on track to becoming a global leader in clean energy, ensuring economic resilience while reducing dependency on fossil fuels.

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Forest Report (IFSR) 2021

▪️Key pointer about India : 

▫️Total Forest Cover = 21.71%

▫️Total Forest & Tree Cover = 24.62%

▪️Largest Forest Cover ( Area wise):-

1. MP 

2.Arunachal Pradesh 

3.Chhattisgarh 

4.Odisha 

5.Maharashtra 

▪️Total Forest Cover ( %age of total GA) : Top five States are 

▫️Mizoram (84.53%)

▫️Arunachal Pradesh (79.33%) 

▫️Meghalaya (76.00%)

▫️Manipur (74.34%) 

▫️Nagaland(73.90%)

▪️Total mangrove cover- 4,992 sq km.

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NATO Short Notes:

- Formation: Established in 1949, NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization) aims to enhance mutual defense and collective security among member countries.

- Membership Expansion: Sweden officially became the 32nd member on March 7, 2024, following the inclusion of Finland in the previous year.

- Headquarters: The main headquarters of NATO is located in Brussels, Belgium.

- Collective Defense: NATO's core principle is Article 5, which states that an attack against one member is considered an attack against all members, triggering a collective defense response.

- Recent Members: Montenegro joined in 2017, and North Macedonia in 2020, marking recent expansions.

- Geopolitical Significance: Sweden and Finland's NATO membership is of strategic importance, given their shared 830-mile border with Russia, contributing to Western military alliances.

- Purpose: NATO's primary objective is to promote mutual defense, security, and cooperation among member nations, fostering stability and peace in the North Atlantic region.

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Global Warming:

1. Causes:

   - Greenhouse Gas Emissions: Mainly carbon dioxide from burning fossil fuels.

   - Deforestation: Reduction of trees reduces the absorption of CO2.

   - Industrial Activities: Release of various pollutants contributing to the greenhouse effect.

2. Impact:

   - Rising Temperatures: Average global temperatures increase, leading to climate changes.

   - Melting Ice Caps: Resulting in rising sea levels and threats to coastal areas.

   - Extreme Weather Events: Increased frequency and intensity of hurricanes, droughts, and floods.

   - Biodiversity Loss: Disruption of ecosystems and endangerment of species.

3. Efforts to Curb:

   - Renewable Energy: Promoting solar, wind, and hydro power to reduce reliance on fossil fuels.

   - Afforestation: Planting trees to absorb CO2 and restore natural ecosystems.

   - International Agreements: Participation in agreements like the Paris Agreement to collectively address climate change.

   - Energy Efficiency: Implementing measures to reduce energy consumption and improve efficiency.

Remember, addressing global warming requires a collective global effort and sustained commitment to sustainable practices.

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Point-wise notes on the Persian Gulf:

Geography:

* Located between the Arabian Peninsula and Iran.

* Semi-enclosed body of water connected to the Arabian Sea by the Strait of Hormuz.

* Area: approximately 240,000 square kilometers.

* Average depth: 35 meters, maximum depth: 90 meters.

* Coastline shared by eight countries: Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, Qatar, United Arab Emirates (UAE), and Oman.

History:

* Historically known as "Mare Persicum" by the Romans.

* Significant crossroads for trade and cultural exchange for centuries.

* Former center of empires like Achaemenid, Sassanid, and Abbasid.

* Discovery of oil in the early 20th century transformed the region's geopolitics.

Economy:

* Holds about 30% of the world's proven oil reserves, making it crucial for global energy markets.

* Major producer and exporter of oil and gas.

* Growing focus on developing tourism and other sectors to diversify economies.

Strategic importance:

* The Strait of Hormuz is a critical chokepoint for oil transportation, with over 20% of global oil shipments passing through it.

* Geopolitical rivalry and regional tensions are major concerns, impacting stability and energy security.

* Piracy and maritime security remain challenges in some areas.

Environmental issues:

* Pollution from oil spills, industrial waste, and coastal development.

* Overfishing and declining marine biodiversity.

* Rising sea levels and climate change pose long-term threats.

Other notes:

* Diverse cultures and traditions exist across the region.

* Tourism plays a significant role in some countries, particularly the UAE.

* Water scarcity is a major challenge for many countries bordering the Gulf.

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The Rowlatt Act

The Rowlatt Act, officially known as the Anarchical and Revolutionary Crimes Act of 1919, was a law enacted by the British colonial authorities in India. Here are some key points:

Facts:

1. Year: Enacted in 1919 during the British colonial rule in India.

2. Purpose: The act was passed to control public unrest and suppress political activities deemed seditious.

3. Key Provisions: It allowed for the arrest and detention of individuals without trial, based on suspicion of being involved in revolutionary activities.

4. Duration: Initially, the act was intended to be in force for two years, but it was extended indefinitely.

Importance:

1. Background: The Rowlatt Act was a response to the unrest and political turmoil following World War I.

2. Civil Liberties: It curtailed civil liberties and drew widespread criticism for suppressing freedom of expression and assembly.

3. Jallianwala Bagh Massacre: The discontent arising from the Rowlatt Act played a role in the tragic Jallianwala Bagh Massacre in Amritsar in 1919.

Consequences:

1. Protests: The act triggered protests across India, with leaders like Mahatma Gandhi opposing its draconian provisions.

2. Non-Cooperation Movement: The discontent fueled the Non-Cooperation Movement, a major campaign of nonviolent resistance against British rule.

3. Political Awakening: It contributed to the political awakening and mobilization of Indians against oppressive colonial laws.

4. Historical Significance: The Rowlatt Act is considered a significant event in India's struggle for independence, laying the groundwork for future movements.

This act played a crucial role in shaping the trajectory of India's freedom struggle, marked by increased resistance against British rule.

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Jallianwala Bagh Massacre:

Facts:

1. Date: April 13, 1919.

2. Location: Jallianwala Bagh, Amritsar, Punjab, India.

3. Incident: British Brigadier General Reginald Dyer ordered his troops to open fire on a peaceful gathering of thousands of Indians.

4. Casualties: The exact number of casualties is disputed, but it is estimated that hundreds of unarmed civilians were killed, and over a thousand were injured.

5. Duration of Firing: The troops continued firing for about 10 minutes until they ran out of ammunition.

Importance:

1. Background: The massacre occurred during a period of unrest following the Rowlatt Act and the subsequent protests against it.

2. Motivation: Dyer claimed he wanted to create a 'moral lesson' and instill fear among the Indian population.

3. Public Outcry: The incident generated widespread condemnation, both in India and internationally, for its brutality against unarmed civilians.

4. Impact on Independence Movement: The Jallianwala Bagh Massacre fueled anti-British sentiments, contributing significantly to the independence movement.

Consequences:

1. Hunter Commission: The British government appointed the Hunter Commission to investigate the incident, which criticized Dyer's actions.

2. Non-Cooperation Movement: Mahatma Gandhi launched the Non-Cooperation Movement in response to the massacre, urging Indians to resist British rule through nonviolent means.

3. Shift in Public Opinion: The massacre led to a shift in public opinion against British rule and strengthened the demand for self-rule.

4. Historical Legacy: The Jallianwala Bagh Massacre remains a dark chapter in India's history, symbolizing the excesses of colonial rule.

The Jallianwala Bagh Massacre is remembered as a poignant example of British brutality and a catalyst for increased resistance, ultimately shaping the course of India's struggle for independence.

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Point-wise notes on the World Bank Group for UPSC Prelims:

1. Formation:

   - Year: Established in 1944.

   - Purpose: To provide financial and technical assistance for development projects in developing countries.

2. Structure:

   - Five Institutions:

     - International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD).

     - International Development Association (IDA).

     - International Finance Corporation (IFC).

     - Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA).

     - International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes (ICSID).

3. Objectives:

   - Poverty Alleviation: Focus on reducing poverty in developing nations.

   - Infrastructure Development: Support projects in areas like education, health, and infrastructure.

   - Capacity Building: Enhance institutional and human capacity in recipient countries.

4. International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD):

   - Purpose: Provides loans to middle-income and creditworthy low-income countries.

   - Focus: Infrastructure and development projects.

5. International Development Association (IDA):

   - Purpose: Provides concessional loans and grants to the world's poorest countries.

   - Focus: Projects with a high impact on poverty reduction.

6. International Finance Corporation (IFC):

   - Purpose: Promotes private sector investment in developing countries.

   - Focus: Supporting private businesses, especially in infrastructure and finance.

7. Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA):

   - Purpose: Provides political risk insurance and credit enhancement to encourage foreign investment.

   - Focus: Mitigating risks for investors in developing countries.

8. International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes (ICSID):

   - Purpose: Facilitates arbitration and conciliation of investment disputes between governments and foreign investors.

   - Role: Ensures fair and unbiased resolution of investment-related conflicts.

9. Governance:

   - Voting Power: Shares based on financial contributions, but reforms aim to give more voice to developing nations.

   - President: Traditionally from the United States.

10. Challenges and Criticisms:

    - Conditionality: Criticized for imposing strict conditions on borrowing countries.

    - Governance Structure: Calls for reforms to better represent the changing global economic landscape.

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Important trenches in the oceans:

1. Mariana Trench:

   - Location: Western Pacific Ocean

   - Deepest Point: Challenger Deep, approximately 10,994 meters (36,070 feet) deep.

2. Puerto Rico Trench:

   - Location: North Atlantic Ocean

   - Deepest Point: Milwaukee Deep, approximately 8,376 meters (27,480 feet) deep.

3. Sunda Trench:

   - Location: Indian Ocean

   - Deepest Point: Java Trench, approximately 7,450 meters (24,442 feet) deep.

4. Tonga Trench:

   - Location: South Pacific Ocean

   - Deepest Point: Horizon Deep, approximately 10,882 meters (35,702 feet) deep.

5. Philippine Trench:

   - Location: Western Pacific Ocean

   - Deepest Point: Philippine Deep, approximately 10,540 meters (34,580 feet) deep.

6. Japan Trench:

   - Location: Northwestern Pacific Ocean

   - Deepest Point: Japan Trench's Challenger Deep, approximately 10,554 meters (34,600 feet) deep.

7. Peru-Chile Trench:

   - Location: Off the western coast of South America

   - Deepest Point: Puerto Rico Deep, approximately 8,065 meters (26,460 feet) deep.

These trenches are notable for their extreme depths and serve as crucial features in the Earth's geology and oceanography.

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Right to Education

1. Objective: The Right to Education (RTE) is a fundamental right that ensures free and compulsory education for children aged 6 to 14 years in India.

2. Constitutional Provision: Enshrined in Article 21A of the Indian Constitution, which was inserted through the 86th Constitutional Amendment Act in 2002.

3. Compulsory Education: RTE mandates that the government must provide free and compulsory education to all children in the specified age group.

4. Private School Inclusion: The Act also mandates that private unaided schools reserve a certain percentage of seats for economically disadvantaged and socially weaker sections.

5. Infrastructure and Quality: RTE emphasizes the need for adequate infrastructure, qualified teachers, and a focus on improving the overall quality of education.

6. Prohibition of Capitation Fee: The Act prohibits the collection of any capitation fee and screening procedures during admissions to ensure inclusivity.

7. Implementation Challenges: While RTE is a landmark initiative, its implementation faces challenges like inadequate infrastructure, teacher shortages, and the need for improved quality standards.

8. Monitoring Mechanism: The National Commission for the Protection of Child Rights (NCPCR) and State Commissions for Protection of Child Rights (SCPCR) monitor and oversee the implementation of RTE at the national and state levels.

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Battle of Plassey

1. Year: 1757

2. Location: Plassey, Bengal

3. Parties Involved:

   - British East India Company led by Robert Clive

   - Nawab of Bengal, Siraj-ud-daulah

4. Key Events:

   - Conspiracy between the British and Mir Jafar, a discontented noble in Siraj-ud-daulah's court.

   - British forces, though outnumbered, secured support from Mir Jafar and other conspirators.

   - The battle took place on June 23, 1757, with Robert Clive leading the British forces.

   - Mir Jafar's betrayal during the battle resulted in a decisive victory for the British.

5. Outcome:

   - Siraj-ud-daulah was defeated, leading to the establishment of British supremacy in Bengal.

   - Mir Jafar was installed as the puppet Nawab, marking the beginning of British influence in Indian politics.

6. Significance:

   - The Battle of Plassey played a crucial role in the expansion of British rule in India.

   - It marked the decline of the Mughal influence in Bengal and the ascendancy of the British East India Company.

   - The battle's aftermath laid the foundation for British colonial dominance in the Indian subcontinent.

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Judicial activism and overreach

✅ Section 153C of the Income Tax Act is an instance of Judicial Overreach.

✅ Judicial activism is the use of judicial power to articulate and enforce what is beneficial for society. However, when judicial activism goes overboard it is called judicial overreach.

✅ Judicial review is the power bestowed upon the judiciary by the constitution, to scrutinize legislative enactments and executive orders to ensure that they are in accordance with the provisions of the Constitution.

▪️ Arguments :

✅Flows from constitution

✅Addressing legislative or executive inaction:

For example, in Vishakha v. State of Rajasthan, the guidelines for the protection of women at workplace from sexual harassment 

✅ Protecting Rights & Liberties: In 1979, in Hussainara Khatoon v. State of Bihar, Supreme Court took up a PIL action on behalf of under-trial prisoners who had been in jails for long time. 

✅ Promoting Social Change: For instance, in Navtej Singh Johar case, 2018 Supreme Court decriminalised of same-sex relations.

▪️ Methods :

✅ PIL

✅ Constitutional interpretations- art 21

✅ Supervisory powers of higher courts over lower courts

✅ International statutes : Vienna convention on rights of person with disabilities etc. 

▪️Criticism :

✅Seen as violation of Separation of powers

✅Diluting balance among organs of the government

✅Overlooking the consequences of Judgements: In 2016, Supreme Court banned liquor sale at retail outlets that are within 500 meters of any National or State highway.

✅Disruption of Policymaking

✅Legitimacy of the Government can diminish the faith of the people in the integrity, quality, & efficiency of the government

✅ Judicial populism

✅Judicial restraint : It says that judiciary should invalidate actions of legislature or executive only when constitutional limits have been clearly violated

✅ Continuous Evaluation

✅Public Awareness & Civic Engagement

✅Strengthening Democratic Institutions

 

#polity

#mains

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